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A Framework for National Assessment of Land Degradation in the Drylands: A Case Study of Somalia
Land degradation is a gradual, negative environmental process that is accelerated by human activities. Its gradual nature allows degradation to proceed unnoticed, thus reducing the likelihood of appropriate and timely control action. Presently, there are few practical frameworks to help countries design national strategies and policies for its control. The study presented here developed a framework for the national assessment of land degradation. This framework is envisaged to support governments in formulating policies on land degradation. It uses time-series remote sensing data to identify the rate and extent of land degradation, local experts to identify prevalent degradation types and drivers of the degradation and field observations to validate the overall assessment.
Its simplicity, use of freely downloadable input data and self-triangulation of the assessment methods make it suitable for rapid assessment of land degradation on a national scale. It was tested in Somalia, where it exhibited accuracy greater than 60 per cent when assessing land degradation. This framework is relevant for designing national strategies and policies that address land degradation and provides an opportunity for accurate identification of areas to target with comprehensive local assessment. Testing of the framework in Somalia showed that about one-third of the country was degraded because of loss of vegetation cover, topsoil loss and to the decline of soil moisture. Overgrazing, excessive tree cutting and poor agronomic practices in agricultural areas were identified as the primary drivers of the country’s land degradation. These drivers are encouraged by the prevailing communal land tenure practices, poor governance and civil war. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Journal Article
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SWALIM
An Assessment of the Surface Water Resources of the Juba-Shabelle Basin in Southern Somalia
The water resources of the Juba and Shabelle rivers in southern Somalia are important for irrigation and food production, but are influenced by seasonal floods. Prior to the outbreak of civil war in 1991, the Somali Ministry of Agriculture successfully operated a hydrometric network covering the Juba and the Shabelle, data from which provided input to a flow forecasting model. The war resulted in the neglect and abandonment of monitoring stations and an enforced cessation of data collection and management. In 2001 and 2002, part of the pre-war hydrometric network was reinstated and water levels were again recorded at some stations. This paper examines the implications of the 11-year hiatus in data collection, and the now much reduced monitoring network, for assessing and managing the surface water resources. The problems faced have relevance to other basins, within Africa and elsewhere, where there has been a similar decline in data collection.
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Journal Article
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SWALIM
L-17 Mapping and Assessment of Irrigated Farms in Puntland
Irrigated agricultural areas of Puntland were mapped using Google Earth images and field based interviews with the farmers to characterize land use. Information displayed in this report includes maps of the irrigated agricultural areas and tables and pictures to show the characteristics of the irrigated agricultural areas of Puntland. The study outlines the state of the irrigated agricultural areas in Puntland and consequently points out areas which need intervention. However, this study is being updated and concluded in SWALIM V.
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Technical report
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SWALIM
L-18 Monitoring of Golis Forest in Somalia- Report No
This study serves as a starting point towards a monitoring initiative for the Golis mountain forest. It forms part of the input to the land degradation monitoring activity initiated by SWALIM. Information generated in the study includes a map showing land cover in the Golis forest, tables and pie charts to show utilization and management of the resources of the forest. The maps in this study were generated using Landsat TM images aided by Google Earth images and ecological field surveys coupled with interviews to the local people to help characterize the forest in terms of management and utilization concerns. Information contained in this study will help in the improved management and utilization of the forest.
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Technical report
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SWALIM
L-19 - Methodology for Monitoring of Mangroves in Somalia
This study serves as a starting point towards a monitoring initiative for the mangrove ecosystem of Somalia. It also forms part of the input to the land degradation monitoring activity initiated by SWALIM. Information generated in the study includes maps showing location of the mangroves, tables and pie charts to show utilization and management of the resources of the Somalia mangroves. The maps in this study were generated using Google Earth images and ecological field surveys coupled with interviews to the local people to help characterize the mangrove forests in terms of their management and utilization. Information contained in this study will help in the improved management and utilization of the mangrove forests of Somalia. The study covered the mangroves of Zeylac, Barbera, Calula in the north and Kismayio in the south.
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Technical report
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SWALIM
L-20 Practical guide for Land Degradation Monitoring
This practical guide for land degradation monitoring will provide tools that can be used to facilitate a simple and systematic approach to monitoring long-term changes in soil and rangeland conditions and will be the working document for future monitoring programmes. The simple monitoring methods presented in this guide will be used to periodically generate quantitative information from different representative sites of degraded land, land under degradation or sensitive degraded land within the country. The monitoring approach will enable information to be shared among all stakeholders involved in land resource management and will help national decision-makers and the donor communities to make sound land resource management decisions.
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Technical report
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Integrated draft:The environment conservation act and the agricultural land ownership law
The environment conservation act and the agricultural land ownership law
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Other
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Towards a spatial Data Infrastructure for Somalia using open source standards
SDI is a well-known concept in Africa, many countries are on the way to having a formal SDI strategy Certain countries, such as Somalia, are starting the process of nation building after years of war. These countries stand to leapfrog other African countries by implementing current SDI best practices. The FAO‐SWALIM project is in the unique position to be able to assist Somali authorities in providing some of the building blocks for SDI development, even though SWALIM does not have the legal mandate to do so. This paper highlights what SWALIM can currently contribute and what significant work (and resources) are still required for a Somalia National SDI.
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Journal Article
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W-15 Flood Risk and Response Management
Floods regularly cause disasters in Somalia, and in particular along the Juba and Shabelle Rivers in the southern part of the country. The downstream segments of these rivers are marked by an inverse topography, with water courses at some locations on higher elevation than the adjacent land; as a result, the lower parts of the riverine floodplains are highly susceptible to flooding (an attribute widely used in gravity-fed irrigation and deshek farming). Arid and semi-arid land further away from the main river courses also experience flash-flood events.
Flood risk management (FRM) has been defined as “a systematic process that produces a range of measures associated with flood hazard mitigation, emergency preparedness, impact response and disaster recovery, and which contributes to the safety of communities and the environment; and at the same time parallels risk management and good management practices”.
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Technical report
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Somalia Water and Land Information Management, Nairobi (Kenya)
W-16 Somalia Flood Forecasting System
Floods are a common phenomenon in the riverine areas of the Juba and Shabelle River basin. The two rivers exhibit seasonal characteristics in their hydrological regime with high tendency of flooding especially during the Deyr (October to November) rain season. Some of the major flood events in the two basins in the past few decades occurred in the years 1961, 1977, 1981, 1997 and 2006. The floods are mainly caused by high rains experienced on the upper catchments of the two rivers in the Ethiopian highlands. However, the contribution of human activities to the floods
is also significant, with the riparian farmers cutting the river banks to allow water flow into their fields during low flows. These illegal activities have increased after collapse of the central government in 1991 and exacerbated by El Nino 1997/98 rains that contributed to further destruction of the irrigation and flood control infrastructure.
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Technical report
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Somalia Water and Land Information Management, Nairobi (Kenya)
W-17 Water Sources Survey Invetory for Central South Somalia
Somalia’s surface water resources are concentrated mainly along the two perennial rivers, Juba and Shabelle. The flow in both rivers varies widely across the seasons. During the two rainy seasons, Deyr and Gu, the rivers often flood from very high flows, whereas in the dry season, flow is very minimal and can barely support irrigation. The riverine areas of the Juba and Shabelle occupy a small percentage of the Somalia’s territory. Majority of the country falls under arid and semi arid climatic conditions with very limited surface water resources. Domestic and commercial water needs in such areas are usually met through underground water sources.
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Technical report
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Somalia Water and Land Information Management, Nairobi (Kenya)
W-18 Inventory of Drainage Basins of Northern Somalia
Addressing issues of natural resources requires a holistic approach that recognizes the interdependence between competing demands and limited resources. Integrated watershed management is recognized as the best instrument for dealing with water and natural resources. This would also contribute to the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger (MDG 1) through improved food security (main focus of FAO) and sustainable
environmental management (MDG 7).
To enable start a process of integrated water resources management in Northern Somalia, the Somalia Water and Land Information Management (SWALIM) project has been mandated by the European Union (EU) to develop an inventory of the drainage basins of the area. A great percentage of the Somalia population relies directly on the natural resource base to meet their daily needs.
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Technical report
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Somalia Water and Land Information Management, Nairobi (Kenya)
W-19 UNICEF’s Water Interventions Mapping Report (2005-2009)
The major objective of the mapping exercise was to evaluate progress made in the water sector in terms of coverage of water services and increase in number of benefi ciaries served through UNICEF’s EC funded programme. The report documents the results of interventions for the period 2005 to 2009 under the programme “Integrated Water Resource Management and Rural Water and Sanitation Programme in Somalia”.
SWALIM carried out the mapping exercise at the request of UNICEF. The information products from the exercise include maps showing annual progress, regional maps for rural interventions and water supply system maps for major towns.
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Technical report
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SWALIM
W-13 Hydraulic Behaviour of the Juba and Shabelle Rivers
The alluvial plains of the two Somali perennial rivers, the Shebelle and Juba Rivers, have been and could be the breadbasket of Somalia. They have considerable potential for irrigation development. The civil war in the last two decades has however taken a severe toll on the institutions and infrastructure necessary to manage the water resources of the two rivers that
is the lifeline of Southern Somalia. Flooding is now a frequent problem in the riverine areas and sometimes it takes the proportion of a catastrophic natural disaster, like in the 2006 Deyr rainy season. Natural flood plains have been encroached and the embankments have been cut to divert water during the dry season for irrigation purposes. The barrages and canals that
were used to irrigate vast areas are now dysfunctional. Efforts are underway to prepare an integrated flood management plan and also to rehabilitate the irrigation facilities and revive the agricultural sector. These efforts are hampered by lack of knowledge of river basin behaviour in terms of hydrology, hydraulics, sedimentation, etc. and, lack of public institutions responsible for implementing sound river basin management measures.
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Technical report
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Somalia Water and Land Information Management, Nairobi (Kenya)
W-14 Analysis of General Climatic Conditions in Somalia in Support of Drought Monitoring
Africa is characterised by extremes of climate both spatially and temporally. Unlike in the temperate zones where growing seasons primarily reflect changes in temperature, Africa's rhythms of life reflect rainfall as the "limiting" factor. Generally, Africa has a wide variety of bimodal climates based around a summer wet season and a winter dry season. In fact, Africa's swings between dry and wet seasons are the most pronounced of any of the continents. Not surprisingly therefore, floods and droughts are a
common feature all over the continent. Due to the high drought vulnerability in most countries in Africa, it is not surprising that the drought hazards easily develop into disasters with serious consequences. The situation seems to be more serious in the Great Horn of Africa (GHA).
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Technical report
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Somalia Water and Land Information Management, Nairobi (Kenya)
L-14 Land Degradation Assessment and a Monitoring Framework in Somalia
In this study, national-level assessment of land degradation was done using time series remote sensing images from 1982 till 2008 and expert opinion about the history of the degradation in Somalia dating back as far as the experts could remember. The objective of the study was to identify potential causes, types, and impacts of land degradation at the national level and to identify local spots for comprehensive assessment. The outputs from this study was envisaged to support policy decisions for combating land degradation at the national level and to give the general guidelines of the sections of the country experiencing severe degradation so that appropriate planning of the national resources could be instituted. The assessment was stratified according to land use systems units in the country. In addition to the assessment, the study also established good baseline information for future monitoring of land degradation in Somalia.
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Technical report
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Somalia Water and Land Information Management, Nairobi (Kenya)
L-16 Soil Erosion and Sedimentation Modelling and Monitoring of the Areas Between Rivers Juba and Shabelle in Southern Somalia
Soil erosion is a complex dynamic process by which the productive soil surface is detached, transported, and accumulated at a distant place. It produces exposed subsurface where the soil has been detached and the detached deposited in low-lying areas of the landscape or in water bodies downstream in a process known as sedimentation.
The present study by FAO-SWALIM was initiated with the general objective of preparing an assessment of soil erosion and sedimentation of the riverine areas between rivers Juba and Shabelle and to provide input into soil erosion and sedimentation monitoring framework which will contribute to improved management of the irrigation systems in south Somalia. The study identified areas prone to high soil erosion rates and sediment flux into river Juba and Shabelle in south Somalia.
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Technical report
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Somalia Water and Land Information Management, Nairobi (Kenya)
L-12 Land Resources Assessment of Somalia
This report gives an overview of the land resources for the whole country. The
main focus is on the agricultural potential of the country and is expressed
through the delineation and description of agro-ecological zones. It provides a physical land suitability assessment of the two main SWALIM study areas in western Somaliland and southern Somalia, respectively. In addition
it gives a summary of research done in the study area in Puntland, dealing
with the applicability of remote sensing techniques for the assessment of pastoral resources while describing some of the results of the land degradation assessment study done in western Somaliland area.
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Technical report
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Somalia Water and Land Information Management, Nairobi (Kenya)
L-13 Land Use Planning Guidelines
During the last 120 years, Somalia and Somaliland have experienced great political and socio-economic changes. The change in land use policies and land use planning activities over those periods is considerable, with new governments often reversing measures taken by previous regimes. More or less continuous developments over all periods include growing population, expansion of agriculture (cropping), increased number of water points, sedentarization, tree cutting and expansion of rangeland enclosures.The purpose of the Land Use Planning Guidelines for Somaliland is to explain the
principles and procedures of land use planning in general, and how it can be applied in Somaliland at various levels in particular.
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Technical report
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Somalia Water and Land Information Management, Nairobi (Kenya)
L-15 Detection of Tree Cutting in the Rangelands of NE Somalia
This report outlines how very high resolution satellite imagery was used to estimate the rate of tree-cutting in Puntland. The study used visual interpretation of Ikonos and Quickbird images for 2001 and 2006 respectively to generate tree density maps for the two years. Through collaboration between SWALIM and the EC Joint Research Centre at Ispra, Italy, an automatic procedure for identifying and classifying trees was also tested. Both techniques produced similar results, which showed an overall decrease in tree density between 2001 and 2006. The results also showed some areas where the tree densities have increased due to environmental conservation through community interventions. The method used can be up-scaled to other parts of Somalia to support afforestation campaigns and environmental conservation.
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Technical report
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SWALIM
W-12 Water Sources Inventory for Northern Somalia
The number of water sources information collected in SWIMS through partners implementing water projects in the field during SWALIM II was limited. Only 750 water sources data was received for a period of more than a year, and in many cases the data covered only a small section of the essential information. As a result it become necessary for SWALIM to move to the field and do an inventory of all water sources points in Somalia. A country wide survey was launched, in collaboration with UNICEF, for the
strategic water points: boreholes, springs, dams and shallow wells which last long into the dry season. There are many point water sources in Somalia, which would take many months to survey. Majority of these sources are however seasonal, lasting only a few weeks after the rains. They include berkads and some shallow wells, and are used only
during the rainy season. When they dry out the local communities look for alternative sources of water. The limited resources available for the survey could not cover all the water sources in the country. Only the strategic water points were surveyed, as they are the source of water for the local communities when the seasonal sources dry out. The survey started in the Northern part of the country: Somaliland and Puntland, with plans of extending to the South/Central Somalia when security situation allows.
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Technical report
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Somalia Water and Land Information Management, Nairobi (Kenya)
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Other
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The World Conservation Union
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Other
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United Nations Human Settlements Programme
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Other
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United Nations Human Settlements Programme
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Other
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